Science fact is infinitely more positive and only slightly less amazing than science fiction. Life, as we know it, is a function of the genetic codes that all living things carry in nearly every cell of their structure. The science of genetics is nothing less than understanding the most intimate secrets of life. An explosion of knowledge and increased successes in molecular biology have meant that many problems considered formidable just a decade or so ago are now being or on their way to being solved. Molecular biologists have contributed to an ever increasing understanding of the origin of the human species; to the creation of genetically engineered new drugs; and to the sequencing of the entire genome of a variety of species, including disease-causing micro-organisms, agriculturally important plants, and the human organism itself.
What is Genetics and Molecular Biology?
Genetics is the science of heredity. By understanding the mechanisms which govern the way genetic information is received and expressed by individual organisms during their life and also how it is passed onto succeeding generations, scientists are increasingly able to understand the biochemical processes of all living things.
Geneticists study what genes are, how they are duplicated and transferred, and how they change by mutation and selection during evolution. Genetics is a component of virtually every area of biology and can be found in many subfields within biology including evolution, behavior genetics, developmental biology, cytogenetics, population genetics, clinical and molecular genetics. Molecular biology encompasses the molecular aspects of biochemistry, genetics and cell biology. It seeks to explain the relationships between the structure and function of biological molecules and how these relationships contribute to the operation and control of biochemical processes. Molecular biology is, by its very nature, reductionist. That is, it deals with ever smaller pieces (i.e. molecules) of the whole (i.e. cell). Molecular biology concentrates on the interplay between genes and biochemical function and allows us to determine the precise role of DNA-based information (genes) in the activity of all living things. The ultimate goal of molecular biology is to understand the five basic cell behavior patterns– growth, division, specialization, movement and interaction – in terms of the various molecules that are responsible for them. That is, molecular biology wants to generate a complete description of the structure, function and inter-relationships of the cell’s macromolecules, and thereby to understand why living cells behave the way they do.
Of principal interest are the macromolecules and macromolecular complexes of DNA, RNA and protein and the processes of replication, transcription and translation. The new experimental technologies involved in manipulating these molecules are central to modern molecular biology and have tremendous practical applications in the development of new and safe products such as therapeutics, vaccines and foodstuffs, and in the diagnosis of genetic disease and in gene therapy. Significant discoveries emerge from research laboratories nearly every day and newspaper articles frequently herald in exciting announcements of the identification of disease-causing genes, or promising biotechnology products, or new agricultural processes.
In recent years, molecular biology has witnessed an information revolution as a result of development of rapid DNA sequencing techniques and the corresponding progress in computer based technologies, which are allowing us to cope with this information deluge in increasingly efficient ways. The term that was coined to encompass computer applications in biological sciences is bioinformatics. Increasingly, geneticists and molecular biologists use extremely sophisticated computer applications to ‘mine’ the massive amounts of data that are being generated so that computational biology is emerging as a fast-growing specialization.
What Do You Need to Become a Geneticist or a Molecular Biologist?
To be involved in high-level research and to set independent research goals you will need, at least, a PhD and preferably post doctoral experience. Masters and Bachelors graduates generally work at levels that support the research goals of higher-level scientists, so there is less opportunity to engage in original research projects. However, responsibilities will vary from project to project.
Academic qualifications are critical and can demand long years of study. It is important to:
• take, and enjoy, biology, chemistry and mathematics at school
• talk to course supervisors when choosing papers at university
• keep ‘tuned in’ to current research that interests you
• review your goals at each new phase of study
• maintain other interests, socialize and build up a balanced lifestyle.
Skills and Personal Qualities Required:
Whatever their job title, people working in this
area are fundamentally scientists. They carry
out their work according to well-established scientific principles and procedures. They need:
• A good understanding of scientific methodology
• Ability to interpret experimental data
• Ability to use a range of laboratory equipment
• Knowledge of various techniques of molecular analysis
• organized work habits
• Practical understanding of hazardous substances
• Clear written communication, particularly in writing up experimental results or data
• Willingness to work after hours and weekends at critical phases of experiments
• Practical understanding of statutory and regulatory responsibilities
• Understanding and commitment to ethical codes
• An understanding that some work may involve live animals
• A working knowledge of relevant funding criteria and application procedures.
As in any job, personal qualities are important. Scientists need to:
• Be curious
• Be imaginative
• Be self-motivated and able to work independently
• Adapt to a cooperative team environment when required
• Be patient and methodical
• Maintain determination and persistence
• Have an analytical and logical turn of mind
• Learn how to express complex ideas in simple terms
• Cultivate a questioning, ‘what if’ attitude to information and ideas
• Where possible, build up international networks of people whose work interests them.
Where Do Geneticists and Molecular Biologists Work?
Research Organizations
Most molecular biologists work in some sort of
research environment. Also, because some
genes do exactly the same job in animals and humans, and plants for that matter, work on animals can also have applications for human health.
Funding arrangements have a direct impact on the availability of jobs and the types of research carried out. Scientific research is very expensive. Much of the money for it comes from the government and can be subject to changes in government policy. There are increasing levels of collaboration between various research groups, industry groups, producer boards, private investors and so on. Sometimes one organization might contract out part of a research project to another. Joint ventures are becoming more common. Overall, the boundaries between pure research and its commercial applications are becoming less distinct.
Most research organizations prefer a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc) with Honors as a minimum qualification because of the practical laboratory experience the degree provides. Familiarity with equipment such as centrifuges; knowing how to make basic reagents; how to use polymerase chain reaction (PCR) equipment; how to handle hazardous substances and how to access large databases are some of the necessary skills. Research experience gained during Masters and PhD degrees are critical for more responsible positions. However, a straight B.Sc graduate may be employed for basic laboratory duties.
Most employers recognize the ability of people to learn new skills on the job and will reward initiatives with increasing responsibility. Certainly, any kind of practical laboratory experience will enhance a graduate’s prospects. However, there will probably always be something of a divide between a research technician/assistant and a research scientist.
Private Research Organizations
They are not plentiful and may only employ small numbers of staff. Some have links to international companies. Private companies tend to be closer to commercial ventures and may work in partnership with industry for specific economic outcomes. Small teams tend to require versatility and perhaps a broader knowledge base, so double degrees may be valued. Productivity is a strong value. There may be considerable interface with clients and good presentation skills are necessary.
Hospitals
Hospitals have a range of laboratory services including cytogenetic laboratories and molecular laboratories. Cytogenetics analyses the chromosome and principally involves the diagnosis of chromosomal abnormality, often at the pre-natal stage. It is also a diagnostic technique for leukemia and some solid cancer tumors. Many genetic diagnoses, these days, use molecular techniques such as PCR and sequencing to screen for mutations in genes. Many technicians working in cytogenetics have a Bachelor of Medical Laboratory Science but a B.Sc graduate in molecular biology would still be employed. Both types of graduates would need to apply for registration with the Medical Laboratory Technologists Board, which involves additional exams.
Government Agencies
These agencies also employ people with a background in genetics or molecular biology. These are not research organizations and tend to deal with statutory and regulatory matters, so the work is based on the analysis of documents. Hierarchies of responsibility still tend to be linked to degree status. The work is administrative, but still technical. Their reports are passed on to Scientific Advisers, who typically have PhDs, for evaluation and review before the decision is passed on to the applicant.
Patent Attorneys
Patent offices employ graduates of all levels, although it is recognized that a Masters or PhD brings higher levels of specialized knowledge. A law degree is an optional extra. Apart from formal qualifications, patent attorneys need very good people skills as they need to communicate comfortably with inventors, business managers and regulatory authorities. The work involves the interpretation and criticism of patent specifications, and effectively staking a conceptual and geographical claim over the rights. Patent attorneys are largely trained on the job.
Analytical Laboratories
These labs are sometimes attached to research organizations or may be stand-alone operations. Generally, the work is of routine nature, perhaps a series of tests, and B.Sc graduates can usually learn the required skills on the job. However, expensive equipment and/or hazardous substances may be involved, so attention to detail and a responsible attitude are important.
Genetic Counselors
Genetic counselors require a degree in biological science, though not necessarily molecular biology, as well as post graduate experience in a research or diagnostic laboratory. A Masters degree would be considered as giving greater experience. Genetic counselors talk with people who have, or are at risk of having, a genetic disease - or their children. It is important to be nonjudgmental and be able to discuss quite complicated information in an understandable way. They discuss inheritance, risk, testing options and reproductive options. Both the practical and emotional implications, along with other issues, need to be considered. An understanding of molecular and cytogenetic techniques is helpful as the counselors order, interpret and explain test results.
Forensic Labs
The work involves DNA profiling and DNA database management, much of it relating to police investigation. Typically, DNA is extracted from recovered cellular material, such as blood. Specific genes (loci) are targeted and amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The fragments are sorted according to size and a DNA profile is determined from the sample. This is, then compared with a control sample using very carefully controlled statistical analysis.
Sales and Marketing positions with pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies are sometimes appropriate for molecular biology graduates.
Where do we search?
If you are looking for an academic position in the life sciences or a position in the biopharmaceutical industry, just find out what resources are available to you on the web. If you are contemplating a job change or questioning aspects of your career path, are there online resources that present career advice and support?
Luckily, there are myriad resources on the web that specialize in careers in science. In general, the resources fall into two categories - information and tools for job seekers and resources and aids for ongoing career development. The wide range of information is geared for both academic scientists and professionals in the biotechnology and biopharmaceutical industries.
For job seekers, a major timesaving benefit is the ability to browse job listings online. Science (www.scienceonline.org) and Nature (www.nature.com) both provide online access to their published job listings, which include positions in both academia and industry. The job advertisements in Science are browsable and searchable by topic area, geographic location, type of position and key words. Users can also receive free email alerts for positions in particular topic areas. Science provides listings from the past four issues; the positions primarily represent openings in the US with a selection of worldwide jobs. Nature uses a more rudimentary interface to allow searchable access to job listings in what appears to be the current issue. Users can search by location, position, topic area or company name and the site has a nice selection of UK and international positions.
A new resource, Sciencejobs.com (www.sciencejobs.com/bio/), is a collaboration of Cell, BioMedNet and the New Scientist that combines the job listings from all three to create an extensive, international resource. The sophisticated job search interface is browsable and searchable by discipline, geographical location, type of position and key words. Several viewing options for search results include view by date or view by organizations. Sciencejobs.com offers a free email alert service and job listings are available from the past 60 days.
Several web sites that focus on the biotechnology and biopharmaceutical industry feature searchable job listings. BioSpace (www.biospace.com), BioOnline (www.bio.com), and The BioCareer Center (www.biocareer.com) all provide job databases that are browsable by company, discipline and location and are searchable by key words. Job listings include scientist positions, technician positions and other positions in industry, such as marketing and sales. MonsterJobs (jobsearch.monster.com) at Monster.Com (www.monster.com) is an enormous searchable jobs database with a category for biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies. Users can create automated search agents via email relevant job openings.
For information about career development issues and career advice, several high-quality resources provide access to hundreds of relevant articles. Science’s Next Wave (nextwave.sciencemag.org) is designed specifically to provide career information for young scientists. Next Wave’s Career Development Center for Postdocs and Junior Faculty (www.nextwave.sciencemag.org/feature/careercenter.shtml) presents over 70 articles that focus on professional issues in academia and grant writing information. Although discussion forums are available, they are not very active. Unfortunately, access to additional career material at Next Wave is now limited to subscribers. The Career Center (www.bio.com/hr/) at Bio Online features a very useful collection of over 50 articles in Your Career in the Sciences (www.bio.com/hr/search/search_1.html) by David G. Jensen. The topics are relevant for both academia and industry and address such issues as the job hunt and how to improve your career skills and how to be a better manager. Bio Online also hosts an active, moderated Career Forum (www.bio.com/hr/forum/).
In addition, many popular print publications provide free access to their feature articles on career issues at their web sites. These articles cover a tremendous range of topics in the science profession, including hot geographic locations, interview tips, specific research areas, academic science, women and minorities in science and alternative careers for scientists. The Scientist (www.the-scientist.com), a bi-weekly science news journal, has a long tradition of presenting relevant articles pertaining to both traditional and alternative science careers. Articles from the Profession (www.the-scientist.com/professionarchive.htm) section of every issue are permanently archived for free online access.
In the Science Careers (recruit.sciencemag.org) section of Science Online, the Advice and Perspectives (recruit.sciencemag.org/feature/advice/advice.shl) section presents a useful collection of over 80 articles with career information and features published in Science over the past few years. Nature Jobs (www.nature.com/naturejobs) also includes a selection of feature articles from the past few years on careers in science in the Career Info section. HMS Beagle (news.bmn.com/hmsbeagle/) has published over 50 articles addressing career concerns in the careers section, along with profiles of labs and companies, feature articles and a debate about career issues. Beagle maintains a full archive of these articles.
Several web sites that are devoted to information and resources for the biotechnology and biopharmaceutical industries contain useful and relevant information for job seekers and career professionals in industry. The Career Resources (www.biocareer.com/feature.cfm) section of The BioCareer Center (www.biocareer.com), organized by the Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO) and SciWeb, reprints about 50 articles from sources such as Career Source Magazine and Fast Company. The articles address issues that are more specific for careers in industry, such as job interviews, resumes, salary negotiations and management techniques.
The BioCareer Center site includes a Discussion Board (www.biocareer.com/discussion.htm) that is somewhat active.
Another biopharmaceutical site, BioView (www.bioview.com), features a CareerView (www.bioview.com/car/car.htm)section with lots of practical career information, such as useful tips about resumes, along with access to a resume generator program. In addition, BioView provides links to resources and information about relocation, including a cost of living calculator and specific statistics from school districts in the US. The site includes job listings and a selection of career articles culled from other sources.
To keep abreast of developments in the
biopharmaceutical industry and to research biotech companies for job interviews, try BioSpace (www.biospace.com). The site provides extensive coverage of breaking news releases, company profiles and financial results and includes feature articles and roundtable discussions on developments in biotech. BioSpace focuses on “hotbed communities” (www.biospace.com/biotechhotbeds.cfm) in the US, Canada and the UK; the site has a special section on Start-Up companies (www.biospace.com/startup/index.cfm). The BioOnline site also presents news and events in industry and sponsors chat events and feature articles on current topics in biopharmaceuticals.
Many career sites now feature mechanisms for job seekers to post their resumes online. The majority of the sites mentioned above, including Science, Nature, BioOnline, BioView, The BioCareer Center and Monster.Com, provide this function. In general, the online resumes are designed by filling out standard forms and the information can be modified later if necessary. The web sites appear to be vigilant about protecting privacy; most sites will let users post a resume anonymously, which blocks the name and contact information and provides a forwarding email address to potential employers. Currently, this type of service may be more appropriate for technician-level positions rather than scientist positions. However, these tools may become more mainstream for bioscientists in the future.
Keep in mind that none of the online informational and job resources will substitute for good, old-fashioned networking, especially with regard to obtaining a position. The colleagues and mentors in your field will often prove to be the most insightful resources for your particular situation and concerns. However, online career resources can simplify and enhance the job search process and provide useful and relevant career development information.
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